Exploring the effect of employability and job characteristics on contextual performance: Mediating by organizational commitment

Introduction

Indonesia’s Human Development Index (HDI) has not shown significant progress. Indonesia’s HDI in 2019 is 111 out of 189 countries in the world. This condition contrasts with the demands of globalization. When international globalization requires superior and competitive quality human resources (HR), Indonesia’s HDI tends to be stagnant. That is, the quality of Indonesian human resources did not progress at all so that they were not ready to compete, even with fellow HR from ASEAN countries. This condition shows that in the perspective of national education in Indonesia, especially graduates of vocational high schools are clearly inadequate. The problem requires strengthening the performance of vocational high school principals, because the principal has the central role and the highest authority in the school.

Contextual Performance

According to Aguinis (2013:88), “performance is about behavior or what employees do, not about what employees produce or the outcomes of their work.” This view is supported by Ivancevich, Konopaske and Matteson (2014:172) who state that “performance is a set of employee work related behaviors designed to accomplish organizational goals.” Likewise, Byars, Rue and Ibtrahim (2016: 216) say “performance as degree of accomplishment of the task that make up an employee’s job. It reflects how well an employee is fulfilling the requirements of a job.” Therefore, performance can be viewed from a perspective on contextual performance, which includes those behaviors that contribute to the organization’s effectiveness by providing a good environment in which task performance can occur. Contextual performance includes behaviors such as the following:

1. Persisting with enthusiasm and exerting extra effort as necessary to complete one’s own task activities successfully;
2. Volunteering to carry out task activities that are not formally part of the job;
3. Helping and cooperating with others;
4. Following organizational rules and procedures; and
5. Endorsing, supporting, and defending organizational objectives (Aguinis, 2013).

Employability

Contextual performance, among others, is influenced by employability. The results of research by Abas-Mastura, Imam and Osman (2013), Philippaers et al. (2016), and Pinto and Ramalheira (2017) show employability has a direct effect on contextual performance. Employability is referred to as individuals’ capabilities to maintain, nurture and develop competencies and qualifications which can enhance their sustainable labor market participation and their career potential (van der Heijde & van der Heijden, 2006; Berntson & Marklund, 2007). In other words, employability is an individual’s work-centered adaptability that enhances his or her abilities to find and use job and career opportunities within or outside the current workplace (Forrier & Sels, 2003), or a form of work specific active adaptability that enables workers to identify and realize career opportunities (Fugate, Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004). Employability also is often viewed as a ‘win-win’ for all labor market parties. It is argued that it makes workers better equipped to take on other types of jobs inside or outside their current employment if necessary, meanwhile enabling organizations to meet fluctuating and unpredictable market demands (Nauta, van Vianen, van der Heijden, van Dam, & Willemsen, 2009). Feelings of employment security also improves when employers provide outplacement assistance as part of the severance package offered to laid-off workers (Jackson, Schuler, & Werner, 2009). Van der Heijde and van der Heijden (2006) state that conceptually in employability; there are five dimensions that describe inherently paradoxical. This is interpreted as a dimension that reflects in maintaining and increasing employability means simultaneous, persistent and often conflicting investment in workers. The five dimensions are: (1) domain-specific occupational expertise and more general competences in order to enhance their; (2) proactive; (3) reactive adaptability to labor market and organizational changes, meanwhile maintaining their; (4) occupational sense (commitment to organizational and team goals); and (5) balance between organizational and personal interests (including health, vitality, and work-life balance). Thus, it can be hypothesized:

H1: Employability has a direct effect on contextual performance.

Job characteristics

Contextual performance is also influenced by job characteristics. Several studies report that job characteristics has a direct effect on contextual performance, for example: Johari, Yean, Yahya and Adnan (2015), Brooks and Califf (2016), Rijanti, Priyono and Nugroho (2017), Amahwa and Mukanzi (2018), Abasalizadeh and Dadgarinezhad (2018); Sugianto, Muhyi and Purnomo (2018), and Peiroa et al. (2020). Bernardin and Russell (2013:130) also argue that job characteristics of the model emphasizes enhancing the intrinsic aspect of an employee’s work to increase performance. According to Snell and Bohlander (2010: 164), “job characteristics model is a job design theory that purports that three psychological states (experiencing meaningfulness of the work performed, responsibility for work outcomes, and knowledge of the results of the work performed) of a job holder result in improved work performance, internal motivation, and lower absenteeism and turnover.” Hackman and Oldam as quote by Noe et al. (2015) identified five dimensions of job characteristics, namely: (1) skill variety is the extent to which the job requires a variety of skills to carry out the tasks, (2) task identity is the degree to which a job requires completing a “whole” piece of work from beginning to end, (3) autonomy is the degree to which the job allows an individual to make decisions about the way the work will be carried out, (4) feedback is the extent to which a person receives clear information about performance effectiveness from the work itself, and (5) task significance is the extent to which the job has an important impact on the holes of other people. Thus, it can be hypothesized:

H2: Job characteristics has a direct effect on contextual performance.

Organizational commitment

In Addition, contextual performance is also influenced by organizational commitment. Several studies have shown that organizational commitment has a direct effect on performance, for example: Harwiki (2016), Anggapradja and Wijaya (2017), Renyut, Modding, Bima, and Sukmawati (2017), Destari, Lumbanraja and Absah (2018), Khunsoonthornkit and Panjakajornsak (2018), Fajrin, Saragih and Indratjahjo (2018), Lin and Shiqian (2018), Metin and Asli (2018), Suharto, Suyanto and Hendri (2019). Organizational commitment is “the degree to which an employee identifies with the organization and is willing to put forth effort on its behalf” (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart, & Wright, 2015:467), or “the attitudinal experience of commitment occurs apart from, or as a consequence of, day-to-day work activity” (Beardwell & Thompson, 2017:397). Meyer and Allen as quote Beardwell and Thompson (2017) identify three different types of commitment: normative, continuance and affective commitment. Normative or moral commitment occurs where individual feel that they ought to be committed to the organization, regardless of whether or not they actually believe in the organization’s values. Continuance commitment is where an individual chooses to remain with an organization as long as they consider that the benefits of doing so outweigh the costs of leaving. With affective commitment, individuals feel an emotional attachment to the organization. Thus, it can be hypothesized:

H3: Organizational commitment has a direct effect on contextual performance.

Organizational commitment in addition to influencing contextual performance is also influenced by employability. The results of research carried out by Benson (2006), de Cuyper and de Witte (2011), and Yousaf and Sanders (2012) show that employability affects organizatinonal commitment. Thus, it can be hypothesized:

H4: Employability has a direct effect on organizational commitment.

Organizational commitment is also influenced by job characteristics. Several studies conducted by Chang and Lee (2006), Ali (2015), Obi-Nwosu, Chiamaka and Tochukwu (2013), and Sabella, El-Far and Eid (2016) have shown that job characteristics influences organizational commitment. Thus, it can be hypothesized:

H5: Job characteristics has a direct effect on organizational commitment.

Research Methods

This study used a sample of 216 principals taken by proportionate random sampling from 493 principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia based on the provisions in Krejcie and Morgan Table (1970). Research data collection was carried out using a questionnaire in the form of a Likert scale with five alternative answers: strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree and strongly agree. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics and path analysis. Data processing was done with SPSS 22 and Lisrel 8.80 software.

Research Result

The results of the descriptive statistical analysis for the four research variables are presented as followed:

As shown in Table 1, the mean values of the four variables from the lowest to the highest in succession are job characteristics (109.06), organizational commitment (111.78), contextual performance (113.00), and employability (134.85). The results of hypothesis testing with path analysis of the effects of employability, job characteristics, and organizational commitment on contextual performance are summarized as followed:

The results of the path coefficient and t value can be described as followed:

The test results of Table 2 show that all hypotheses were accepted. Employability, job characteristics, and organizational commitment had a significant direct effect on contextual performance. Employability and job characteristics had a significant direct effect on organizational commitment. In addition, the results of the study also showed that employability and job characteristics had a significant indirect effect on contextual performance by mediating organizational commitment, each with path coefficient = .015** and .005** and t value = 2.79 and 2.63. In figure 1, the accuracy index of p-value = 1.00000 > .05 and RMSEA = .000 < .01, so that the model tested is fit. That means the theoretical model being tested is supported by empirical data.

Discussion

Direct effect employability on contextual performance

The results of this study have proven that employability had a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance. The finding shows that employability was an important antecedent for contextual performance. Employability is an individual’s capability in maintaining and developing competencies and qualifications that can increase his labor market participation on an ongoing basis or his career potential manifested in specific work skills, proactive, adaptability and balance to maintain organizational and personal interests. When these indicators are in good condition then it can stimulate the principal to show behavior that contributes to the effectiveness of school organizations by providing a good environment where all tasks can be carried out properly and optimally. The results of previous studies conducted by Abas-Mastura, Imam and Osman (2013), Philippaers et al. (2016), and Pinto and Ramalheira (2017) also show that employability affects contextual performance. Thus, these findings are consistent, support and confirm the results of previous studies that employability has a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance with the setting of the principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia.

Direct effect job characteristics on contextual performance

The results of this study also have indicated that job characteristics had a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance. This findings have shown that job characteristics can be relied upon to increase contextual performance. Job characteristics is a collection of task attributes that exist in a job such as in the form of skill variations, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. These attributes if the conditions are in line with the expectations of the principal will provide encouragement for increase contextual performance. Job characteristics such as feedback will give enthusiasm to the principal in work, because everyone in work wants feedback as an evaluation material for their performance. Feedback such as in the form of appreciation or praise from the organization or leader shows the attention and recognition of the existence of the principal in an organization. This recognition will encourage principals to be more enthusiastic in realizing school goals. The results of previous studies conducted Johari et al. (2015), Brooks and Califf (2016), Rijanti, Priyono and Nugroho (2017), Amahwa and Mukanzi (2018), Abasalizadeh and Dadgarinezhad (2018); Sugianto, Muhyi and Purnomo (2018), and Peiroa et al. (2020) also showed that job characteristics influence contextual performance. Thus, these findings are consistent, support and confirm the results of previous studies that job characteristics has a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance with the setting of the principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia.

Direct effect organizational commitment on contextual performance

The results of this study also have shown that organizational commitment had a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance. This finding shows vitality organizational commitment for contextual performance. Organizational commitment is a sense of identification, participation and involvement in the organization manifested in form: normative, continuance and affective commitment. When the principal can identify, participate and be involved normatively, continuously and affectively in the school organization, it can stimulate the principal to show behavior that contributes to the effectiveness of school organizations by providing a good environment where all tasks can be carried out properly and optimally. The results of previous studies conducted by Harwiki (2016), Anggapradja and Wijaya (2017), Renyut et al. (2017), Destari, Lumbanraja and Absah (2018), Khunsoonthornkit and Panjakajornsak (2018), Fajrin, Saragih and Indratjahjo (2018), Lin and Shiqian (2018), Metin and Asli (2018), Suharto, Suyanto and Hendri (2019) also show that organizational commitment influences contextual performance. Thus, these findings are consistent, support and confirm the results of previous studies that organizational commitment has a positive and significant direct effect on contextual performance with the setting of the principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia.

Direct effect employability on organizational commitment

The results of this study also found that employability had a positive and significant direct effect on organizational commitment. This finding shows that employability is needed to develop organizational commitment. Employability is an individual’s capability in maintaining and developing competencies and qualifications that can increase his labor market participation on an ongoing basis or his career potential manifested in specific work skills, proactive, adaptability and balance to maintain organizational and personal interests. When the indicators are in good condition, it can encourage the school principal to show optimal participation and involvement to achieve the school’s goals. The results of previous studies conducted by Benson (2006), de Cuyper and de Witte (2011), and Yousaf and Sanders (2012) also show that employability affects organizational commitment. Therefore, these findings are consistent, support and confirm the results of previous studies that employability has a positive and significant direct effect on organizational commitment with the setting of the principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia.

Direct effect job characteristics on organizational commitment

The results of this study also revealed that job characteristics had a positive and significant direct effect on organizational commitment. The finding shows that job characteristics can be used to build organizational commitment. Job characteristics is a collection of task attributes that exist in a job such as in the form of skill variations, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. Autonomy for example will give enthusiasm to the principal in work, because principals in work wants the freedom to complete their work. Autonomy is a job characteristic that gives certain principals a certain control and control in making work-related decisions. This dimension is fundamental to create a sense of responsibility within the principal. With this sense of responsibility, the principal will make every effort to complete their work as well as possible. Another form of job characteristic that has the potential to cause organizational commitment is the significance of the task. If the principal feels that what he has done has benefited others, himself or his family, it will further encourage his enthusiasm to complete each of his work and will lead to a stronger commitment in carrying out each task. The results of previous studies conducted by Chang and Lee (2006), Ali (2015), Obi-Nwosu, Chiamaka and Tochukwu (2013), Sabella, El-Far and Eid (2016) also showed that job characteristics influence organizational commitment. Thus, these findings are consistent, support and confirm the results of previous studies that job characteristics has a positive and significant direct effect on organizational commitment with the setting of the principals of Private Vocational High Schools in DKI Jakarta Province, Indonesia.

In addition, the results of the study also have shown that employability and job characteristics had a significant indirect effect on contextual performance by mediating organizational commitment. Thus, organizational commitment has a vital role in mediating the effect of employability and job characteristics on contextual performance. This also means that the model of the effect of employability and job characteristics on contextual performance with organizational commitment mediation can be utilized by researchers and practitioners in the future.

Conclusion

This research proves that employability, job characteristics, and organizational commitment have direct effects on contextual performance; employability and job characteristics have a direct effect on organizational commitment; employability and job characteristics have indirect effects on contextual performance by mediating organizational commitment. Therefore, a fit research model has been accomplished about the effect of employability and job characteristics on contextual performance by mediating organizational commitment. This model can be used as a reference by researchers and practitioners in developing models of contextual performance.

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